We are learning that the key solution to inequalities in society - unequal access to healthcare, work and education - lies in re-conceptualization of the ideas we've inherited from prior generations about "race" and affirmation of our common humanity.
The American Anthropological Association holds: "The concept of race is a social and cultural construction...[and that] It is clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups...[and that] The concept of "race" has no validity...in the human species."
Challenges associated with the concept of race:
1. "In the social sense, race is a reality. In the scientific sense, it is not."
The above quote comes from Kenneth kennedy, a Professor at Cornell University, and reflects the growing belief on the part of most scientists that the concept of
race is problematic and that racial classifications on the whole are meaningless and unscientific.
2. Racial categories created in 1977 by OMB Directive No. 15 are problematic
Because the concept of "race" lacks clear scientific evidence, each society arbitrarily creates its own categories and definitions. For this reason, it is possible for a citizen of another country to move to the U.S. and find that suddenly their "race" has changed. The current American racial and ethnic group classification system more accurately reflects changing political interests, than it does any actual group divisions on the basis of race. (See a more detailed discussion of the specific challenges with this classification system in the article "
Current Official Racial and Ethnic Groups in America").
3. Gaps between official designations and individual identities are common
An interesting case: In the early 80s, Ms. Susie Phipps, brought up white, was surprised to learn that her birth certificate identified her as "colored." The problem? A 1970 Louisiana law required that anyone with more than 1/32nd black blood be classified as "black." Ms. Phipps learned that her great-great-great-great grandmother had been a black slave. Ms. Phipps sued the state of Louisiana to change her racial designation to reflect the way she self-identified - as "white."
She lost. In 1983, the State Supreme Court denied her motion and in 1986, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to review the case.4. Over the course of one's life, a person may find himself categorized differently
Since 1989, a common practice has been to categorize newborns by the race of the mother (unless the father is black, in which case administrators may be likely to invoke hypo-descent - a rule requiring that anyone who has a black ancestor be classified as black - and label the child black). However, at death, racial designation is often made by a third party (e.g. coroner, physician, funeral director). The result? One is born into one race and dies another.5. Self-identification (as well as public perception) can change
Sometimes new groups emerge, depending on changes in immigration patterns and/or civil status. Sometimes groups assimilate and no longer carry their "old" identities with them. A prime example here is the drastic increase in those identifying as Native American between 1960 (552,000) and 1990 (1,959,000). This change constitutes a whopping, and improbable, 255% increase over the course of only 30 years, and can be explained by shifts in attitudess toward Native Americans, a cultural romanticization of the past, and a desire to take advantage of tangible benefits tied to status as a Native American.6. Development of a "panethnic" awareness is common
This birth of new identities can sometimes occur when a group of individual racial and/or ethnic identities (e.g. Chinese, Japanese, Korean,
Native Americans) bond together over the awareness of shared challenges and struggles (e.g. segregation, restrictive immigration and naturalization laws, discrimination) and instead, form a unified presence and identity (e.g. Asian American).
7. Meanings and definitions of racial categories can and do shift
Because race is a
social construct, throughout history, who was black and who was white, who was Latino and who was white, who was Asian and who was white, has changed (oftentimes legally dictated) numerous times.
8. Immigration of new groups & increased rates of intermarriage mean new identities
In modern-day America, more and more Americans of mixed ancestry are choosing to adopt a "
multiracial" identity, rather than continue to make the arbitrary decision to choose one or another of their rightful heritages. For example, a half Chinese, half Indian American might, rather than choose one identity over another, simply choose to identify as multiracial.
9. Though "race" is known to be a sociohistorical, CONSTRUCT we treat it as FACT
Though many of the early scientific studies validating the biological basis for race have been refuted and proven to to have been based on faulty and biased assumptions, we continue to use race as a key statistical index. We seek correlations between race and health/medical care, race and intelligence, and race and behavior, among other variables. The unfortunate results often amount to racial profiling, medical profiling, and discriminatory employment and housing practices which help to maintain the status quo in the racial hierarchy.10. Many of us, whether in recent or distant history, come from mixed backgrounds
Some groups, particularly Latino groups, do not have a homogeneous racial ancestry. African Americans tend to have
a mix of West African and European (and other) ancestry with an average 80% African ancestry. For blacks in some regions where creole heritages define the culture (such as New Orleans and Haiti) the percentage of African blood is often even lower. European Americans also tend to be mixed - with an average of 30% of whites having less than 90% European ancestry.
